Iruni Kalupahana JadeTimes Staff
I. Kalupahana is a Jadetimes news reporter covering Culture
Introduction to Native Americans Societies
Native Americans, also referred to as American Indians, are the aboriginals of the North American continent, which encompasses all the land in the Western Hemisphere prior to the appearance of Europeans therein. Their societies developed a variety of technologies and practices, which maintained differences across their respective daily lives. For instance, the bow and arrow, invented at about 500 AD, transformed the manner of hunting for many tribes. Domesticate crops such as corn, beans, and squash major crops, commonly referred to as the "Three Sisters" which made up the core of their agrarian lifestyle. Domestic communities ranged in size and complexity from small nomadic bands of hunter gatherers to large settled societies. One such society, Cahokia, had a population as large as 10,000 to 20,000 located near modern day St Louis, with considerable trade and ritual worship complete with earthen mounds. Teotihuacan was a pre Columbian city located in what today is the nation of Mexico. There were once up to 200,000 inhabitants that made it briefly one of the largest cities in the world.
The Impact of European Colonization
When the European explorers reached the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries, their presence heralded the most profound changes that were to happen within the Native American societies. Together with guns, the superior arms of Europeans, came smallpox and other diseases that Native Americans had no immunity against, which may have annihilated as much as 90 percent of the native population. Besides biological devastation, the European colonizers went on military conquests, enslaving many Native Americans and further decimating communities.
The Indian Removal Act of 1830, signed by President Andrew Jackson, brought about the forced relocation of tens of thousands of Native Americans, primarily from the Southeast to designated Indian Territory in what is today Oklahoma. The Trail of Tears has become a symbol of the brutal treatment Native Americans endured, over 4,000 Cherokee people died on their forced migration. Yet indigenous groups also continued to resist colonization and work to preserve their cultures. Some political victories, such as the passage of the Indian Citizenship Act in 1924, which made all Native Americans U.S. citizens, were forthcoming.
Diverse Indigenous Cultures and Regions
Geographers and historians commonly break Native Americans into cultural areas, based on regions and shared characteristics. For North America, there are 10 cultural areas, Arctic, Subarctic, Plains, Southeast, Southwest, Plateau, California, Northwest Coast, Northeast, and Great Basin. The Southwest region encompasses the tribes of the Hopi, Zuni, and Pueblo. To plant crops, like corn and cotton, in the desert environment of the region, irrigation systems needed to be very advanced. Contrastingly, Plains tribes such as the Sioux, Comanche, and Cheyenne were outstanding wanderers who hunted, while their sources of subsistence, bodies, and homes were deeply reliant on the buffalo. The northeastern tribes include the Iroquois Confederacy, who were known for their sophisticated modes of political organization. The Iroquois Confederacy's Great Law of Peace made an impact on democratic praxis, emphasizing union, joint leadership, and a consensus making process. An exemplary leader like Cietal of the Red Indians showed a lot of adaptability between traditional governance and pressures resulting from European colonization, hence displaying the ability to sustain their communities through hard times.
Struggles and Resilience in the Modern Era
Even so, Native Americans, among the onslaught that was European colonization and then the establishment of the United States, are really resilient. Those who resisted by the late 19th century were mostly confined to reservations after centuries of resistance. Such reservations are characterized by sullen poverty, lack of resources, and forced assimilation into cultures other than their own. This is further expedited by some government initiated programs, such as the boarding school system, that work to eradicate Native identities by removing children from the family and teaching them European American customs often through harsh means. Native American activism picked up, however, during the 1960s with the general movement of the Civil Rights era. The American Indian Movement soon became an advocate for political and cultural forces, taking the lead in popular efforts such as the occupation of Alcatraz Island from 1969 to 1971 that garnered widespread attention about Native American rights. Another focal point in Native American resistance was the Wounded Knee incident of 1973. These efforts contributed to the enactment of legislation like the Indian Self Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975, which gave tribes a greater say in their own affairs. Today, many Native American tribes have taken successful steps toward cultural revival and economic independence by establishing industries such as gaming and resource management.
